15. In this Part—

“activity” means any activity that a company may be lawfully formed to carry on and includes the holding, acquisition or disposal of property of whatsoever kind;

“existing private company” means a private company limited by shares which—

(a) was incorporated under any former enactment relating to companies (within the meaning of section 5); and

(b) is in existence at the commencement of this section,

but does not include such a company where, subsequent to that commencement, it re-registers as another type of company;

“registered person” shall be read in accordance with section 39(2);

“relevant classification system” means NACE Rev. 2, that is to say, the common basis for statistical classifications of economic activities within the European Community set out in the Annex to Council Regulation (EEC) No. 3037/90 of 9 October 1990 on the statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community, as amended for the time being;

“transition period” means the period expiring 18 months after the commencement of this section.

16. (1) If, in any respect, any difficulties arise in the operation of the provisions of the Act which, in the opinion of the Minister, necessitate the giving of more time for affected or interested parties to undertake any necessary actions or procedures in the period provided for in the definition of “transition period” in section 15, the Minister may by order substitute a longer period (but not a period of longer than 30 months) for the period mentioned in that definition.

(2) Where it is proposed to make an order under this section, a draft of the order shall be laid before each House of the Oireachtas and the order shall not be made unless a resolution approving of the draft has been passed by each such House.

17. (1) A company may be formed for any lawful purpose by any person or persons subscribing to a constitution and complying with the requirements of this Part as to registration of a company.

(2) The liability of a member of a company at any time shall be limited to the amount, if any, unpaid on the shares registered in the member’s name at that time.

(3) Subsection (2) is without prejudice to any other liability to which a member may be subject as provided by this Act.

(4) The number of members of a company shall not exceed 149 but, in reckoning that limit, there shall be disregarded any of the following persons.

(5) Those persons are—

(a) a person in the employment of the company who is a member of it;

(b) a person who, having been formerly in the employment of the company, was, while in that employment, and has continued after the termination of the employment to be, a member of it.

(6) Where 2 or more persons hold one or more shares in a company jointly, they shall, for the purposes of this section, be treated as a single member.

(7) Any registration of a person as a member of a company in excess of the limit provided by subsection (4) shall be void.

18. (1) A company shall not be formed or registered unless it appears to the Registrar that the company, when registered, will carry on an activity in the State.

(2) A company shall not carry on the activity of a credit institution or an insurance undertaking.

19. (1) The constitution of a company shall state—

(a) the company’s name;

(b) that it is a private company limited by shares registered under this Part;

(c) that the liability of its members is limited;

(d) as respects its share capital, either—

(i) the amount of share capital with which it proposes to be registered (“its authorised share capital”), and the division of that capital into shares of a fixed amount specified in the constitution, or

(ii) without stating such amount, that the share capital of the company shall, at the time of its registration, stand divided into shares of a fixed amount specified in the constitution;

(e) the number of shares (which shall not be less than one) taken by each subscriber to the constitution; and

(f) if the company adopts supplemental regulations, those regulations.

(2) The constitution shall—

(a) be in a form in accordance with the form set out in Schedule 1 or as near to it as circumstances permit;

(b) be divided into paragraphs numbered consecutively; and

(c) either—

(i) be signed by each subscriber in the presence of at least one witness who shall attest the signature; or

(ii) be authenticated in the manner referred to in section 888.

(3) Where, subsequent to its registration, an amendment of the constitution is made affecting the matter of share capital, or another matter, referred to in subsection (1), that subsection shall be read as requiring the constitution to state the matter as it stands in consequence of that amendment.

20. A company may not amend the provisions contained in its constitution except in the cases, in the manner and to the extent for which express provision is made in this Act.

21. (1) The constitution of a company shall be delivered for registration to the Registrar together with—

(a) the statement and consent referred to in section 22; and

(b) the declaration referred to in section 24, and, where appropriate—

(i) the bond referred to in section 22(6);

(ii) the statement referred to in section 23.

(2) The Registrar shall not register a constitution delivered for registration under this section unless he or she is satisfied that all the requirements of this Act in respect of registration and of matters precedent and incidental thereto have been complied with.

22. (1) In this section—

(a) a reference to a statement is to the statement required to be delivered by section 21(1)(a); and

(b) a reference to a company is to the company to which such statement relates.

(2) The statement shall be in the prescribed form and shall state:

(a) the name of each of the persons who are to be the first directors of the company;

(b) the name of the person who is, or of each of the persons who are, to be the first secretary or joint secretaries of the company;

(c) the name of the person (if any) who is, or of each of the persons (if any) who are, to be the first assistant or deputy secretary or secretaries of the company;

(d) the address of the company’s registered office; and

(e) the place (whether in the State or not) where the central administration of the company will normally be carried on,

and the particulars (in relation to any foregoing person) specified in subsection (3) and any other particulars that may be prescribed in relation to such a person or in relation to any other foregoing matter.

(3) The particulars referred to in subsection (2) are—

(a) in relation to a person named as director of the company concerned, all particulars which are, in relation to a director, required pursuant to subsection (2) of section 149 to be contained in the register kept under that section;

(b) in relation to a person named as secretary, or as one of the joint secretaries, all particulars which are, in relation to the secretary or to each joint secretary, required pursuant to subsection (5) of section 149 to be contained in the register kept under that section; and

(c) in relation to a person named as assistant or deputy secretary, all particulars which are, in relation to an assistant or deputy secretary, required pursuant to subsection (7) of section 149 to be contained in the register kept under that section.

(4) Where the constitution is delivered, pursuant to section 21, to the Registrar by a person (the “agent”) as agent for the person or persons who have subscribed to the constitution, the statement shall so specify and shall specify the name and address of the agent.

(5) Subsections (2) and (3) are without prejudice to subsection (7).

(6) Where no person referred to in subsection (2)(a) is resident in an EEA state, there shall be delivered for registration a bond as provided by section 137(2).

(7) In respect of the activity, or one of the activities, to be carried on by the company in the State, the statement shall contain the following particulars:

(a) if it appears to the person making the statement that the activity belongs to a division, group and class appearing in the relevant classification system—

(i) the general nature of the activity; and

(ii) the division, group and class in that system to which the activity belongs;

(b) if it appears to that person that the activity does not belong to any such division, group and class, a precise description of the activity;

(c) the place or places in the State where it is proposed to carry on the activity.

(8) For the purposes of subsection (7), if the purpose or one of the purposes for which the company is being formed is the carrying on of 2 or more activities in the State, the particulars in respect of the matters referred to in paragraphs (a) to (c) of that subsection to be given in the statement shall be the particulars that relate to whichever of those activities the person making the statement considers to be the principal activity for which the company is being formed to carry on in the State.

(9) The statement shall—

(a) be signed by or on behalf of each subscriber to the constitution of the company or be authenticated in the manner referred to in section 888; and

(b) be accompanied by a consent that is either—

(i) signed by each of the persons named in the statement as a director, secretary or joint secretary or assistant or deputy secretary to act in that capacity, or

(ii) authenticated in the manner referred to in section 888.

(10) Section 223(3), in the case of a director, and section 226(5), in the case of a secretary, requires the inclusion of a particular statement in a foregoing consent by him or her.

23. (1) If any person named in the statement to be delivered under section 21(1)(a) as a director of the company concerned is a person who is disqualified under the law of another state (whether pursuant to an order of a judge or a tribunal or otherwise) from being appointed or acting as a director or secretary of a body corporate or an undertaking, that person has the following obligation.

(2) That obligation is to ensure that the foregoing statement is accompanied by (but as a separate document from that statement) a statement in the prescribed form signed by him or her, or authenticated in the manner referred to in section 888, specifying—

(a) the jurisdiction in which he or she is so disqualified;

(b) the date on which he or she became so disqualified; and

(c) the period for which he or she is so disqualified.

24. (1) In this section—

(a) a reference to a declaration is to the declaration required to be delivered by section 21(1)(b); and

(b) a reference to a company is to the company to which such declaration relates.

(2) The declaration shall state that—

(a) all the requirements in respect of registration of the company and of matters precedent and incidental thereto have been complied with;

(b) the purpose, or one of the purposes, for which the company is being formed is the carrying on by it of an activity in the State; and

(c) the particulars contained in the statement delivered under section 21(1)(a) are correct.

(3) The declaration shall be made by—

(a) one of the persons named in the statement delivered under section 21(1)(a) as directors of the company;

(b) the person or, as the case may be, one of the persons named in that statement as secretary or joint secretaries of the company; or

(c) the solicitor, if any, engaged in the formation of the company.

(4) The Registrar may accept the declaration as sufficient evidence that all the requirements in respect of registration of the company and of matters precedent and incidental thereto have been complied with and, in particular, that there have been complied with—

(a) the requirements mentioned in section 22 and, where appropriate, section 23; and

(b) the requirement mentioned in section 18.

25. (1) On the registration of the constitution of a company, the Registrar shall certify in writing that the company is incorporated and shall issue to the company a certificate of incorporation in respect of it.

(2) From the date of incorporation mentioned in the certificate of incorporation, the subscriber or subscribers to the constitution, together with such other persons as may from time to time become members of the company, shall be a body corporate with the name contained in the constitution, having perpetual succession and a common seal.

(3) The certificate of incorporation issued under subsection (1) shall state that the company is a private company limited by shares.

(4) A certificate of incorporation issued under subsection (1) shall be conclusive evidence that the requirements of section 21 have been complied with, and that the company is duly registered under this Act.

(5) The persons who are specified in the statement required to be delivered to the Registrar by section 21(1)(a) as the director or directors, secretary or joint secretaries or assistant or deputy secretary or secretaries of the company to which the statement refers shall, on the incorporation of the company, be deemed to have been appointed as the first director or directors, secretary or joint secretaries or assistant or deputy secretary or secretaries, as the case may be, of the company.

(6) Any indication in the constitution, as delivered under section 21 for registration, specifying a person as a director or secretary (including any assistant or deputy secretary) of a company shall be void unless such person is specified as a director or as secretary (or, as the case may be, assistant or deputy secretary) in the foregoing statement.

(7) Subsection (5) does not operate to deem a person appointed as a director or secretary (including any assistant or deputy secretary) of a company where—

(a) he or she is disqualified under this Act from being appointed a director, secretary, assistant or deputy secretary, as the case may be, of a company; or

(b) in the case of a director or secretary, a provision of this Act provides that the person’s appointment as such in the circumstances is void.

26. (1) The name of a company shall end with one of the following:

— limited;

— teoranta.

(2) The word “limited” may be abbreviated to “ltd.” (including that abbreviation in capitalised form) in any usage after the company’s registration by any person including the company.

(3) The word “teoranta” may be abbreviated to “teo.” (including that abbreviation in capitalised form) in any usage after the company’s registration by any person including the company.

(4) A company carrying on business under a name other than its corporate name shall register in the manner directed by law for the registration of business names but the use of the abbreviation set out in subsection (2) or (3) shall not of itself render such registration necessary.

(5) No company shall be registered on—

(a) its incorporation; or

(b) should such occur, its re-registration, merger or division,

by a name which, in the opinion of the Registrar, is undesirable.

(6) An appeal shall lie to the court against a refusal by the Registrar to register a company (in any of the circumstances referred to in paragraph (a) or (b) of subsection (5)) on the ground there referred to.

27. (1) Neither a body that is not a company nor an individual shall carry on any trade, profession or business under a name which includes, as its last part, the word “limited” or the words “company limited by shares” or any abbreviations of any of the foregoing words.

(2) If a body or individual contravenes subsection (1), the body or individual and, in the case of a body, any officer of it who is in default, shall be guilty of a category 3 offence.

(3) Subsection (1) as it relates to the use of the word “limited”, or any abbreviation of that word, shall not apply to a society registered under the Industrial and Provident Societies Acts 1893 to 2014.

F16[(3A) Subsection (1) as it relates to the use of the word "limited", or any abbreviation of that word, shall not apply to a limited liability partnership (within the meaning of the Legal Services Regulation Act 2015).]

(4) A company shall not, in the following circumstances, use a name which may reasonably be expected to give the impression that it is any type of company other than a private company limited by shares or that it is any other form of body corporate.

(5) Those circumstances are circumstances in which the fact that it is a private company limited by shares is likely to be material to any person.

(6) If a company contravenes subsection (4), the company and any officer of it who is in default shall be guilty of a category 3 offence.

(7) Subsection (1) shall not apply to any company—

(a) to which Part 21 applies, and

(b) which has provisions in its constitution that would entitle it to rank as a private company limited by shares (whether under this Part or Part 16) if it had been registered in the State.

28. (1) In this section—

“reserved” means reserved under subsection (4) for the particular purpose mentioned in subsection (2);

“specified period” means the period specified in the relevant notification made by the Registrar under subsection (5).

(2) A person may apply to the Registrar to reserve a specified name for either of the following purposes, namely—

(a) the purpose of a company that is proposed to be formed by that person being incorporated with that name;

(b) the purpose of a company changing its name to that name,

and, in either such case, such an application shall be accompanied by the prescribed fee.

(3) In subsection (2), “person” means, for the purposes of paragraph (b) of it, the company referred to in that paragraph.

(4) On the making of such an application, the Registrar may, subject to subsection (7), determine that the name specified in the application shall be reserved for the particular purpose mentioned in subsection (2).

(5) That determination shall be notified to the applicant by the Registrar and that notification shall specify the period for which the name is reserved.

(6) The specified period shall not be greater than 28 days and shall be expressed to begin on the making of the notification.

(7) A name shall not be reserved that, in the opinion of the Registrar, is undesirable.

(8) A person in whose favour a name has been reserved may, before the expiry of the specified period, apply to the Registrar for an extension of the specified period; such an application shall be accompanied by the prescribed fee.

(9) On the making of such an application, the Registrar may, if he or she considers it appropriate to do so, extend the specified period for such number of days (not exceeding 28 days) as the Registrar determines and specifies in a notification of the determination to the applicant.

29. (1) During the specified period and any extension under section 28(9) of that period, a company shall neither—

(a) be incorporated with a particular reserved name save on application of the person in whose favour that name has been reserved; nor

(b) be incorporated with a name that, in the opinion of the Registrar, is too like a particular reserved name.

(2) During the specified period and any extension under section 28(9) of that period, a company shall neither—

(a) change its name to a particular reserved name (unless it is the company in whose favour the name has been reserved); nor

(b) change its name to a name that, in the opinion of the Registrar, is too like a particular reserved name.

(3) If an application for the incorporation of a company with a name that has been reserved under section 28 is received by the Registrar during the specified period (or any extension of it granted under section 28(9)) from the person in whose favour the name has been so reserved, the fee payable to the Registrar in respect of that incorporation shall be reduced by an amount equal to the amount of the fee paid under section 28(2) in respect of the reservation of that name.

(4) In this section “reserved” and “specified period” have the same meaning as they have in section 28.

30. (1) A company may, by special resolution and with the approval of the Registrar, signified in writing, change its name.

(2) Subsection (3) applies if, through inadvertence or otherwise, a company is registered by a name (whether on its first registration, or on its registration by a new name) which, in the opinion of the Registrar, is too like the name by which a company in existence is already registered.

(3) Where this subsection applies the first-mentioned company in subsection (2)—

(a) with the approval of the Registrar — may change its name; or

(b) if, within 6 months after the date of its being registered by the first-mentioned name in subsection (2), the Registrar directs it to do so — shall change its name.

(4) A direction under subsection (3)(b) shall be complied with within a period of 6 weeks after the date of its being given or such longer period as the Registrar may think fit to allow.

(5) Where a company changes its name under this section, the Registrar shall enter the new name in the register in place of the former name, and shall issue a certificate of incorporation altered to meet the circumstances of the case.

(6) A change of name by a company under this section shall not affect any rights or obligations of the company, or render defective any legal proceedings by or against the company, and any legal proceedings which might have been continued or commenced against it by its former name may be continued or commenced against it by its new name.

(7) A company which was registered by a name specified by statute, may, notwithstanding anything contained in that statute, change its name in accordance with subsection (1), but, if the Registrar is of the opinion that any Minister of the Government is concerned in the administration of the statute which specified the name of the company, the Registrar shall not approve of the change of name save after consultation with that Minister of the Government.

(8) If a company fails to comply with a direction under subsection (3)(b) within the period provided under subsection (4), the company and any officer of it who is in default shall be guilty of a category 4 offence.

31. (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the constitution shall, when registered, bind the company and the members of it to the same extent as if it had been signed and sealed by each member, and contained covenants by the company and each member to observe all the provisions of the constitution and any provision of this Act as to the governance of the company.

(2) For the avoidance of doubt, in subsection (1) the reference to any provision of this Act as to the governance of the company includes a reference to any provision of this Act that commences with words to the effect that the provision applies save where the company’s constitution provides otherwise or otherwise contains a qualification on the provision’s application by reference to the company’s constitution.

(3) All money payable by any member to the company under the constitution shall be a debt due from him or her to the company.

(4) An action to recover a debt created by this section shall not be brought after the expiration of 12 years after the date on which the cause of action accrued.

32. (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, a company may by special resolution amend its constitution.

(2) Any amendment so made of the constitution shall, subject to the provisions of this Act, be as valid as if originally contained therein, and be subject in like manner to amendment by special resolution.

(3) Where any amendment is made to a company’s constitution notice of which section 33 requires to be published as therein mentioned, the company shall deliver to the Registrar, in addition to the amendment, a copy of the text of the constitution as so amended.

(4) Subject to subsection (5), and notwithstanding anything in the constitution of a company, no member of the company shall be bound by an amendment made to the constitution after the date on which he or she became a member, if and so far as the amendment—

(a) requires him or her to take or subscribe for more shares than the number held by him or her at the date on which the amendment is made, or

(b) in any way increases his or her liability as at the date referred to in paragraph (a) to—

(i) contribute to the share capital of the company, or

(ii) otherwise pay money to the company.

(5) Subsection (4) shall not apply in any case where the member agrees in writing, either before or after the amendment is made, to be bound by the amendment.

33. (1) The Registrar shall publish in the CRO Gazette notice of the delivery to or the issue by the Registrar of the following documents and particulars—

(a) any certificate of incorporation of the company;

(b) the constitution of the company;

(c) any document making or evidencing an amendment of its constitution;

(d) every amended text of its constitution;

(e) any return relating to its register of directors or notification of a change among its directors;

(f) any return relating to the persons, other than the board of directors, authorised to enter into transactions binding the company, or notification of a change among such persons;

(g) its annual return and the financial statements that are required to be published in accordance with Part 6;

(h) any notice of the situation of its registered office, or of any change therein;

(i) any copy of a winding up order in respect of the company;

(j) any copy of an order for the dissolution of the company on a winding up;

(k) any return by the liquidator of the final meeting of the company on a winding up;

(l) any notice of the appointment of a liquidator in a voluntary winding up of the company.

(2) The publication referred to in subsection (1) shall occur within 10 days after the date of the relevant delivery or issue.

34. (1) Without prejudice to any other provisions on the language of documents, any document delivered to the Registrar shall be in the Irish or English language.

(2) A translation of any such document may be delivered to the Registrar in any official language of the European Union.

(3) Every translation referred to in subsection (2) shall be certified, in a manner approved by the Registrar, to be a correct translation.

(4) In any case of a discrepancy between a document delivered as mentioned in subsection (1) and a translation of it delivered pursuant to subsection (2), the latter may not be relied upon by the company against a third party. A third party may, nevertheless, rely on that translation against the company, unless the company proves that the third party had knowledge of the document delivered as mentioned in subsection (1).

(5) In subsection (4), “third party” means a person other than the company or a member, officer or employee of it.

35. (1) A company may authorise a person (who shall be known and is in this Act referred to as an “electronic filing agent”) to do the following acts on its behalf.

(2) Those acts are—

(a) the electronic signing of documents that are required or authorised, by or under this Act or any other enactment, to be delivered by the company to the Registrar; and

(b) the delivery to the Registrar, by electronic means, of those documents so signed.

(3) The authorisation of a firm (not being a body corporate) by its firm name to do the foregoing acts on behalf of a company shall operate to authorise the following persons to do those acts on the company’s behalf, namely those persons who are from time to time during the currency of the authorisation the partners in that firm as from time to time constituted.

(4) Subject to the following conditions being satisfied, an act of the foregoing kind done by such an agent on behalf of a company pursuant to an authorisation by the company under this section that is in force shall be as valid in law as if it had been done by the company (and the requirements of this Act or the other enactment concerned with respect to the doing of the act have otherwise been complied with (such as with regard to the period within which the act is to be done)).

(5) The conditions mentioned in subsection (4) are—

(a) that prior to the first instance of the electronic filing agent’s doing of an act of the kind referred to in subsection (2), pursuant to an authorisation by the company concerned under this section, the authorisation of the agent has been notified by the company to the Registrar in the prescribed form; and

(b) the doing of the act complies with any requirements of the Registrar of the kind referred to in sections 12(2)(b) and 13(2)(a) of the Electronic Commerce Act 2000.

(6) It shall be the joint responsibility of a company and the electronic filing agent authorised by it under this section to manage the control of the documents referred to in subsection (2).

F17[(7) An electronic filing agent shall not, by virtue of his or her authorisation under this section to act as such, be regarded as an officer or servant of the company concerned for the purposes of F18[section 1535(2) or (3)].]

36. (1) A company may revoke an authorisation by it under section 35 of an electronic filing agent.

(2) Such a revocation by a company shall be notified by it, in the prescribed form, to the Registrar.

(3) Unless and until the revocation is so notified to the Registrar, the authorisation concerned shall be deemed to subsist and, accordingly, to be still in force for the purposes of section 35(4).

(4) If a revocation, in accordance with this section, of an authorisation under section 35 constitutes a breach of contract or otherwise gives rise to a liability being incurred—

(a) the fact that it constitutes such a breach or otherwise gives rise to a liability being incurred does not affect the validity of the revocation for the purposes of section 35; and

(b) the fact of the revocation being so valid does not remove or otherwise affect any cause of action in respect of that breach or the incurring of that liability.

37. (1) A company shall, on being so requested by any member, send to him or her a copy of its constitution—

(a) free of charge, and

(b) in the event of a second or subsequent such request by the member (the first request by him or her having been complied with) on payment to it of €5.00.

(2) Where an amendment is made of the constitution of a company, every copy of the constitution issued after the date of the amendment shall be in accordance with the amendment.

(3) If a company contravenes this section, the company and any officer of it who is in default shall be guilty of a category 4 offence.

38. (1) Subject to subsection (2), notwithstanding anything contained in its constitution a company shall have, whether acting inside or outside of the State—

(a) full and unlimited capacity to carry on and undertake any business or activity, do any act or enter into any transaction; and

(b) for the purposes of paragraph (a), full rights, powers and privileges.

(2) Nothing in subsection (1) shall relieve a company from any duty or obligation under any enactment or the general law.

39. (1) Where the board of directors of a company authorises any person as being a person entitled to bind the company (not being an entitlement to bind that is, expressly or impliedly, restricted to a particular transaction or class of transactions), the company may notify the Registrar in the prescribed form of the authorisation and the Registrar shall register the authorisation.

(2) A person so authorised, where his or her authorisation is registered in the foregoing manner, is referred to in this Act as a “registered person”; where, in a provision of this Act, that expression appears without qualification, it shall be taken as a reference to a registered person authorised by the board of the directors of the company to which the provision falls to be applied.

(3) Where the board of directors of a company revokes an authorisation of a person as a person entitled to bind the company (being an authorisation notified to the Registrar in the prescribed form), the person shall, notwithstanding that revocation, continue to be regarded for the purposes of this Act as a registered person unless and until the company notifies the Registrar in the prescribed form of that revocation.

(4) References in this section to a person’s entitlement to bind the company are references to his or her authority to exercise any power of the company and to authorise others to do so.

(5) In subsection (4) “power of the company” does not include—

(a) any power of management of the company exercisable by its board of directors (as distinct from any power of the board to enter into transactions with third parties), or

(b) a power of the company which this Act requires to be exercised otherwise than by its board of directors.

(6) For the avoidance of doubt, for the purposes of this section the provisions of a company’s constitution with regard to a person’s office or powers shall not, in themselves, be taken as an authorisation by the board of the directors of the company of the person as a person entitled to bind the company.

40. (1) For the purposes of any question whether a transaction fails to bind a company because of an alleged lack of authority on the part of the person who exercised (or purported to exercise) the company’s powers, the following, namely—

(a) the board of directors of the company; and

(b) any registered person,

shall each be deemed to have authority to exercise any power of the company and to authorise others to do so.

(2) Subsection (1) applies regardless of any limitations in the company’s constitution on the board’s authority or a registered person’s authority, but subject to subsections (5) and (8).

(3) Subsection (1) is not to be read as preventing the exercise of a company’s powers otherwise than by the board, a registered person or a person authorised by the board or by a registered person, where authority for that exercise exists.

(4) Subsection (1) does not affect—

(a) a director’s duties (including a director’s duty to observe any limitations in the company’s constitution on the board’s authority), or his or her liability in respect of any breach of those duties; or

(b) any duty arising on the part of any other person concerned in the transaction (including the registered person) or his or her liability in respect of any breach of that duty.

(5) Where a company is purportedly a party to a transaction—

(a) in connection with which the board of directors exceeded limitations in the company’s constitution on their authority; and

(b) to which a person referred to in subsection (6) is also a party,

subsection (1) does not apply in favour of the person so referred to.

(6) Each of the following is a person mentioned in subsection (5)(b):

(a) a director or shadow director of the company or of its holding company;

(b) a person connected with such a director;

(c) a registered person;

(d) a person connected with a registered person,

and in this subsection references to a person’s being connected with—

(i) a director or shadow director are to be read in accordance with section 220; or

(ii) a registered person are to be read in accordance with section 220 as that section is applied by subsection (7).

(7) For the purpose of subsection (6)(ii), section 220 applies as if—

(a) for each reference in subsections (1), (2), (3) and (8) to a director of a company there were substituted a reference to the registered person;

(b) for the first reference and the third reference in subsection (5) to a director of a company there were substituted a reference to the registered person;

(c) the references in subsection (5) to another director or directors included references to one or more other registered persons; and

(d) the reference in subsection (6)(b) to a director included a reference to a registered person.

(8) In subsection (1) “power of the company” does not include—

(a) with reference to any registered person, the power of management referred to in section 39(5)(a), and

(b) with reference to the board of directors or any registered person, the power referred to in section 39(5)(b).

(9) Without prejudice to subsection (1), in determining any question whether a person had ostensible authority to exercise any of a companyÁs powers in a given case, no reference may be made to the company’s constitution.

(10) In this section a reference—

(a) to limitations in a companyÁs constitution includes a reference to limitations deriving from—

(i) a resolution of the company or of any class of its members; or

(ii) any agreement between the members of the company or of any class of its members;

(b) to a transaction includes a reference to any act or omission.

(11) This section is in addition to, and not in substitution for, the Rule in Royal British Bank v. Turquand.

41. (1) Notwithstanding anything in its constitution, a company may empower any person, either generally or in respect of any specified matters, as its attorney, to execute deeds or do any other matter on its behalf in any place whether inside or outside the State.

(2) A deed signed by such attorney on behalf of the company shall bind the company and have the same effect as if it were under its common seal.

42. (1) Contracts on behalf of a company may be made as follows—

(a) a contract which, if made between natural persons, would be by law required to be in writing and to be under seal, may be made on behalf of the company in writing under the common seal of the company;

(b) a contract which, if made between natural persons, would be by law required to be in writing, signed by the parties to be charged therewith, may be made on behalf of the company in writing, signed by any person acting under its authority, express or implied;

(c) a contract which, if made between natural persons, would by law be valid although made by parol only, and not reduced into writing may be made by parol on behalf of the company by any person acting under its authority, express or implied.

(2) A contract made according to this section shall bind the company and its successors and all other parties to it.

(3) A contract made according to this section may be varied or discharged in the same manner in which it is authorised by this section to be made.

43. (1) A company shall have a common seal or seals that shall state the company’s name, engraved in legible characters.

(2) Save as otherwise provided by this Act or by the constitution of the company—

(a) a company’s seal shall be used only by the authority of its directors, or of a committee of its directors authorised by its directors in that behalf; and

(b) any instrument to which a company’s seal shall be affixed shall be—

(i) signed by a director of it or by some other person appointed for the purpose by its directors or by a foregoing committee of them; and

(ii) be countersigned by the secretary or by a second (if any) director of it or by some other person appointed for the purpose by its directors or by a foregoing committee of them.

(3) Save as otherwise provided by the constitution of the company, if there be a registered person in relation to a company, the company’s seal may be used by such person and any instrument to which the company’s seal shall be affixed when it is used by the registered person shall be signed by that person and countersigned—

(a) by the secretary or a director of the company; or

(b) by some other person appointed for the purpose by its directors or a committee of its directors authorised by its directors in that behalf.

43A. (1) Subsections (2) to (4) apply to a company during the interim period only and notwithstanding any provision of—

(a) section 43(2)(b) or (3), or

(b) the company’s constitution.

(2) As respects an instrument to be made or executed by a company, other than an instrument to which subsection (3) applies, such an instrument may consist of several documents in like form if—

(a) one such document is signed by a person referred to in section 43(2)(b)(i),

(b) one such document is signed by a person referred to in section 43(2)(b)(ii), and

(c) one such document has the company’s seal affixed to it.

(3) As respects an instrument to be made or executed by a registered person in exercise of the powers of a company, such an instrument may consist of several documents in like form if—

(a) one such document is signed by the registered person,

(b) one such document is signed by a person referred to in section 43(2)(b)(i),

(c) one such document is signed by a person referred to in section 43(2)(b)(ii), and

(d) one such document has the company’s seal affixed to it.

(4) An instrument consisting of several documents that comply with subsection (2) or (3) shall be valid and effective for all purposes as if the documents were, taken together, one document.]

44. (1) In this section—

“official seal”, in relation to a company, means the official seal referred to in subsection (2);

“place abroad” means any territory, district or place not situate in the State.

(2) A company may, if authorised by its constitution, have for use in any place abroad an official seal which shall resemble the common seal of the company with the addition on its face of the name of every place abroad where it is to be used.

(3) A deed or other document to which an official seal is duly affixed shall bind the company as if it had been sealed with the common seal of the company.

(4) A company having an official seal for use in any place abroad may, by writing under its common seal, authorise any person appointed for the purpose in that place (the “agent”) to affix the official seal to any deed or other document to which the company is party in that place.

(5) The authority of the agent shall, as between the company and any person dealing with the agent, continue during the period, if any, mentioned in the instrument conferring the authority, or, if no period is there mentioned, then until the notice of revocation or determination of the agent’s authority has been given to the person dealing with him or her.

(6) The person affixing an official seal shall, by writing under his or her hand, certify on the deed or other instrument to which the seal is affixed, the date on which and the place at which it is affixed.